Upshan - Best Biology Notes, Reference, Articles

Hepatitis A virus (HAV): properties, classification, mode of transmission, pathogenesis, clinical features and laboratory diagnosis

What is Hepatitis A Virus ? Hepatitis A Virus (HAV) is a highly contagious virus that causes liver inflammation, leading to hepatitis A, a generally self-limiting disease. While most cases resolve without complications, severe liver damage can occur in rare instances. Here’s an overview of HAV, including its characteristics, classification, transmission methods, pathogenesis, clinical symptoms, […]

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Bacterial Conjugation: steps and mechanism of transfer of plasmid from donor to recipient cell

Biology / Upshan

What is Bacterial Conjugation? Bacterial conjugation is a fascinating process where bacteria exchange genetic material, primarily in the form of plasmids. These plasmids are extrachromosomal DNA molecules that can replicate independently of the bacterial chromosome. This exchange of genetic material allows bacteria to acquire new traits, such as antibiotic resistance or the ability to metabolize

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Respiration, types of respiration and anatomy of Human respiratory system

Biology / Upshan

Define Respiration? Respiration is a crucial process that all living organisms require to stay alive. It involves the exchange of gases mainly oxygen and carbon dioxide between the body and the surrounding environment. In humans, this exchange primarily takes place in the lungs, which are located in the chest. Types of Respiration Cellular Respiration This

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Type I hypersensitivity reaction: mechanism and clinical manifestation

Biology / Upshan

What is Type I hypersensitivity reaction? Type I hypersensitivity reaction, also known as an immediate allergic reaction, is a fast and exaggerated immune response to a normally harmless substance (allergen) that the body mistakenly identifies as harmful. It underlies many common allergic conditions such as hay fever, asthma, and anaphylaxis, with symptoms ranging from mild

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Type III hypersensitivity reaction: factors causing immune complex formation, mechanism and types

Biology / Upshan

Define Type III hypersensitivity reaction? Type III hypersensitivity reaction, also called immune complex-mediated hypersensitivity, occurs when clusters of antigens and antibodies, known as immune complexes, form in the blood and get deposited in tissues. This leads to inflammation and damage. Normally, the body clears these complexes, but when they persist, they can cause harmful immune

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Major histocompatibility complex (MHC): structure, types and functions

Biology / Upshan

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) The Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) is a set of proteins found on the surface of cells that play a vital role in the immune system, particularly in helping the body recognize foreign molecules. MHC proteins present fragments of antigens to T-cells, which trigger immune responses. Due to its high level of

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Cephalosporin: structure, classification, clinical use and mode of action

Biology / Upshan

Introduction Cephalosporins are a significant group of beta-lactam antibiotics that are extensively utilized for treating bacterial infections. Discovered in the 1940s from a fungus known as Acremonium, these antibiotics have become essential in medical practice due to their broad-spectrum effectiveness. They operate by either killing bacteria or inhibiting their growth, making them suitable for a

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Methyl red test: objective, principle, procedure and result

Biology / Upshan

Define Methyl red Test? The Methyl Red test is a biochemical assay used to detect bacteria that produce stable acidic end-products from glucose fermentation, causing a significant drop in pH. A positive Methyl red test is indicated by a red color change after the addition of methyl red indicator, while a negative result remains yellow

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Clinical use of penicillin antibiotics

Biology / Upshan

What is penicillin antibiotics? Penicillin antibiotics are one of the earliest and most commonly used antibiotics. Discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928, penicillin revolutionized medicine by effectively treating bacterial infections. These antibiotics either kill bacteria or stop their growth. Penicillins are mainly prescribed for infections caused by bacteria that are sensitive to them. Although still

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Tests for specific carbohydrates: Seliwanoff’s test, Bial’s test and Iodine test

Biology / Upshan

Specific carbohydrates refer to distinct categories of carbohydrates that can be identified and characterized based on their chemical composition, functional groups, and biological functions. Specific carbohydrates include simple sugars, such as monosaccharides (like glucose, fructose, and galactose), as well as complex sugars such as disaccharides (like sucrose and lactose) and polysaccharides (such as starch, glycogen,

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