Biology - Best Biology Notes, Reference, Articles

Bacterial Capsule: structure, function and examples of Capsulated bacteria

Bacteria are tiny organisms that live almost everywhere on surfaces, in the soil, water, and even inside living things like humans and animals. While they are microscopic, they are incredibly diverse and have unique features that help them survive. One of the most important outer features in some bacteria is the capsule. The bacterial capsule […]

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Difference Between Chondrichthyes (Cartilaginous Fish) and Osteichthyes (Bony Fish)

Biology / Sabin Acharya

Introduction Chondrichthyes and Osteichthyes are two major classes of fish, where Chondrichthyes are cartilaginous fish with skeletons made of cartilage (like sharks and rays), and Osteichthyes are bony fish with skeletons made of bone (like salmon and goldfish). Fish are among the most fascinating creatures on Earth. They come in all shapes, sizes, and colors,

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Stains or dyes used in microbiology: composition, types and mechanism of staining

Biology / Upshan

Microorganisms are all around us, but they are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Even under a microscope, many of them are colorless and transparent, which makes it hard to study their shape, size, and structure. This is where stains or dyes play a very important role in microbiology. They help color

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Phylum Echinodermata General Characteristic and Classification

Phylum Echinodermata: General Characteristics and Classification

Biology / Aayush Awasthi

Phylum Echinodermata is a distinct and well-defined group of exclusively marine animals recognized for their unique anatomical and physiological features. The term “Echinodermata” is derived from the Greek words echinos, meaning spiny, and derma, meaning skin collectively referring to their characteristic spiny or rough external covering. These organisms are particularly fascinating due to their radial

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Role of CD4+ cells (T-lymphocytes, macrophages and monocytes) and lymphoid organs in HIV infection

Biology / Upshan

Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) is a virus that attacks the immune system, weakening the body’s ability to fight infections and diseases. The main targets of HIV are certain immune cells called CD4+ cells, which include T-lymphocytes (helper T cells), macrophages, and monocytes. These cells are critical players in the body’s defense system, and their destruction

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Fields and scope of microbiology

Biology / Upshan

Microbiology definition Microbiology is the study of microscopic living organisms, commonly known as microorganisms or microbes. These include bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, algae, and certain parasites. Microbiology is a fascinating and essential field of science because microbes affect every part of life on Earth from human health and disease to agriculture, the environment, and industry.

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Bacterial Transformation: Competence in gram positive and gram negative bacteria

Biology / Sabin Acharya

Introduction Bacteria are tiny, single-celled organisms, but don’t let their size fool you—they’re incredibly smart when it comes to survival. One of their coolest tricks is the ability to pick up DNA from their surroundings and use it to improve themselves. This process is called bacterial transformation. You can think of it like this: imagine

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Phylum Annelida: General Characteristic and Classification

Phylum Annelida: General Characteristics and Classification

Biology / Aayush Awasthi

Phylum Annelida represents a diverse group of segmented worms that are predominantly aquatic but also include terrestrial species. They exhibit bilateral symmetry, a segmented body plan, and a well-developed organ system. Annelids play significant ecological roles in soil aeration, nutrient cycling, and as part of aquatic food webs. Annelids are invertebrate animals characterized by their

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Phylum Cnidaria/Coelenterata: General Characteristic and Classification

Biology / Aayush Awasthi

Phylum Cnidaria, also historically known as Coelenterata, includes a fascinating group of aquatic invertebrates primarily found in marine environments, though some inhabit freshwater bodies. These organisms are characterized by their simple tissue organization, radial symmetry, and a unique mechanism for capturing prey through specialized stinging cells. Coelenterons exhibit diverse body forms, from free-swimming jellyfish to

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Gluconeogenesis

Biology / Sabin Acharya

Introduction Imagine you haven’t eaten for a long time maybe you’re fasting, on a strict diet, or going through intense physical training. Your body needs energy to keep going, especially your brain and red blood cells, which mainly run on glucose (a type of sugar). But what happens when there’s no more sugar left from

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