Introduction Competition interaction is a type of biological interaction where two or more organisms or species struggle to gain access to the same limited resource, such as food, water, shelter, light, space, or mates. In nature, all living organisms interact with one another in many different ways. One of the most common and crucial types […]
Introduction Pathogenic bacteria are types of bacteria that cause disease in humans, animals, or plants. Unlike harmless or beneficial bacteria that help with digestion or nutrient cycling, pathogenic bacteria invade the body, disrupt normal function, and can lead to illness. The human digestive system is home to trillions of microbes, most of which are beneficial
Introduction Commensalism is a type of biological relationship between two living organisms in which one organism benefits, while the other is neither harmed nor helped. In simple terms: One organism gains something (like food, shelter, or transportation), and the other organism remains unaffected — it doesn’t get hurt or helped. Example: A barnacle attaching to
Introduction Coltiviruses are a group of viruses that belong to the Reoviridae family, known to cause a feverish illness in humans known as Colorado Tick Fever (CTF). Though not as widespread as the flu, CTF and related infections are important due to their geographic association, vector (tick) involvement, and potential for misdiagnosis. Viruses are microscopic
Introduction Stool (also called feces) is more than just waste material—it holds valuable information about a person’s health. It can help detect infections, parasites, digestive disorders, blood, and even cancer. But to get accurate results, how the stool sample is collected, handled, and transported is just as important as the testing itself. Imagine a situation
Introduction The ColE1 plasmid is a naturally occurring circular DNA molecule found in Escherichia coli (E. coli). It carries the gene for colicin E1, a toxin that kills competing bacteria, and it can replicate independently of the bacterial chromosome. In the field of genetic engineering and biotechnology, plasmids play a central role. They are tiny,
Introduction to Genetics and Codominance Codominance is a type of inheritance where both alleles in a gene pair are fully and equally expressed in the phenotype. Neither allele hides or masks the other. Instead, traits from both parents appear side by side. Genetics is the science of heredity—how traits are passed from parents to offspring.
Introduction Coccidioidomycosis (pronounced kok-sid-ee-oy-doh-my-KOH-sis) is a fungal infection caused by Coccidioides species. It is also commonly known as “Valley Fever” because it is most prevalent in the valleys of the southwestern United States, especially in California and Arizona. People usually get infected by breathing in spores from the air—not from contact with sick people or
Introduction Bacterial Vaginosis (BV) is a common vaginal infection caused by an imbalance in normal vaginal bacteria. Good bacteria like Lactobacillus decrease, and harmful bacteria increase, leading to symptoms like discharge and odor. The human body is home to millions of microorganisms. Most of them are helpful and live in harmony with us. However, sometimes
Introduction Cladistics is a method of biological classification that groups organisms based on their common ancestry. It focuses on evolutionary relationships and the branching patterns of lineages, rather than just physical similarities. Have you ever wondered how scientists figure out which organisms are more closely related to each other? Or how they trace the evolutionary
